Palo Alto Networks PCCET Practice Test - Questions Answers, Page 13

Attack communication traffic is usually hidden with various techniques and tools, including:

Encryption with SSL, SSH (Secure Shell), or some other custom or proprietary encryption

Circumvention via proxies, remote access tools, or tunneling. In some instances, use of cellular networks enables complete circumvention of the target network for attack C2 traffic.

Port evasion using network anonymizers or port hopping to traverse over any available open ports

Fast Flux (or Dynamic DNS) to proxy through multiple infected endpoints or multiple, ever-changing C2 servers to reroute traffic and make determination of the true destination or attack source difficult DNS tunneling is used for C2 communications and data infiltration

CaaS, or Containers-as-a-Service, is a cloud service that allows users to manage and deploy applications using containers and clusters. CaaS can be situated between IaaS and PaaS in the spread of cloud computing services, based on how much is managed by the vendor. IaaS, or Infrastructure-as-a-Service, provides the lowest level of abstraction, where users have to manage the servers, storage, network, and operating system. PaaS, or Platform-as-a-Service, provides a higher level of abstraction, where users only have to manage the application code and data. FaaS, or Function-as-a-Service, provides the highest level of abstraction, where users only have to manage the functions or logic of the application.CaaS falls in between IaaS and PaaS, as it provides users with more control over the container orchestration and configuration than PaaS, but also simplifies the infrastructure management and scaling than IaaS123.Reference:

What is CaaS?from Red Hat

Containers as a Servicefrom Atlassian

Container as a Service (CaaS)from GeeksforGeeks

Docker and bare metal hypervisor are two different types of virtualization technologies that have different functioning mechanisms, architectures, and use cases. Docker is a containerization technology that allows users to create, deploy, and run applications using containers. Containers are isolated environments that share the same host operating system kernel, but have their own libraries, dependencies, and resources.Docker can run multiple containers on the same host, without requiring a separate operating system for each container12. Bare metal hypervisor, also known as type 1 hypervisor, is a software that runs directly on the hardware and creates virtual machines. Virtual machines are complete operating systems that have their own kernel, drivers, and resources.Bare metal hypervisor can run multiple virtual machines on the same host, each with a different operating system and dedicated resources3.

The main difference between Docker and bare metal hypervisor is the level of abstraction they provide. Docker uses OS-level virtualization, which means it creates containers on top of the host operating system. Bare metal hypervisor uses hardware virtualization, which means it runs independently from the host operating system and creates virtual machines on the hardware layer. This difference has implications for the performance, efficiency, and portability of the virtualized environments. Docker containers are generally faster, lighter, and more scalable than virtual machines, as they do not have the overhead of running a separate operating system for each container. However, Docker containers are more limited and can run only on Linux, certain Windows servers and IBM mainframes if hosted on bare metal. Virtual machines, on the other hand, are more flexible and secure, as they can run any operating system and isolate the guest operating system from the host operating system.However, virtual machines are more resource-intensive and slower than containers, as they have to emulate the hardware and run a full operating system for each virtual machine12.

Docker vs VMWare: How Do They Stack Up? | UpGuard

Hypervisor vs. Docker: Complete Comparison of the Two - HitechNectar

Beginners Track - Docker On Bare Metal | dockerlabs

[Getting Started: Layer 3 Subinterfaces - Palo Alto Networks Knowledge Base]

Virtualization improves the availability of IT systems and resources by enabling features such as12:

Resource optimization: Virtualization allows multiple virtual instances to share the same physical infrastructure, reducing hardware costs and increasing resource utilization.

Scalability: Virtualization enables rapid provisioning and deprovisioning of virtual instances, allowing organizations to scale up or down their IT capacity according to demand.

Disaster recovery: Virtualization facilitates backup and replication of virtual instances, allowing organizations to restore their IT systems and data in the event of a disaster or outage.

Fault tolerance: Virtualization supports high availability and load balancing of virtual instances, ensuring that IT systems and services remain operational even if one or more virtual instances fail.Reference:Virtualization Benefits: How Virtualization Improves Efficiency and Security | VMware,Virtualization Security - A Complete Guide - CyberExperts.com

OSPF is a link-state routing protocol that requires all routers in the same domain to maintain a map of the network. This map is called the link-state database (LSDB) and it contains information about the topology and the state of each link. Each router independently calculates the shortest path to every destination in the network using the Dijkstra algorithm. OSPF routers exchange routing information by flooding link-state advertisements (LSAs) to their neighbors.LSAs are acknowledged by the receivers to ensure reliable delivery12.Reference:

What Is OSPF? Understanding Network Protocols By WireX Systems

Routing Protocols Overview - Global Knowledge

Short-range wireless:

• Adaptive Network Technology+ (ANT+): ANT+ is a proprietary multicast wireless sensor network technology primarily used in personal wearables, such as sports and fitness sensors.

• Bluetooth/Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE): Bluetooth is a low-power, short-range communications technology primarily designed for point-to-point communications between wireless devices in a hub-and-spoke topology. BLE (also known as Bluetooth Smart or Bluetooth 4.0+) devices consume significantly less power than Bluetooth devices and can access the internet directly through 6LoWPAN connectivity.

• Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks

(6LoWPAN): 6LoWPAN allows IPv6 traffic to be carried over low-power wireless mesh networks. 6LoWPAN is designed for nodes and applications that require wireless internet connectivity at relatively low data rates in small form factors, such as smart light bulbs and smart meters.

• Wi-Fi/802.11: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defines the 802 LAN protocol standards. 802.11 is the set of standards used for Wi-Fi networks typically operating in the 2.4GHz and 5GHz frequency bands. The most common implementations today include:

- 802.11n (labeled Wi-Fi 4 by the Wi-Fi Alliance), which operates on both 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands at ranges from 54Mbps to 600Mbps

- 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5), which operates on the 5GHz band at ranges from 433Mbps to 3.46 Gbps

- 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6), which operates on the 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands (and all bands between 1 and 6GHz, when they become available for 802.11 use) at ranges up to 11Gbps • Z-Wave: Z-Wave is a low-energy wireless mesh network protocol primarily used for home automation applications such as smart appliances, lighting control, security systems, smart thermostats, windows and locks, and garage doors.

• Zigbee/802.14: Zigbee is a low-cost, low-power wireless mesh network protocol based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. Zigbee is the dominant protocol in the low-power networking market, with a large installed base in industrial environments and smart home products.

Cortex XDR is a detection and response platform that natively integrates network, endpoint, and cloud data to stop sophisticated attacks. A key benefit of Cortex XDR is that it acts as a safety net during an attack while patches are developed. Cortex XDR uses machine learning and behavioral analytics to detect and validate threats, and automatically reveals the root cause of alerts to speed up investigations. Cortex XDR also enables flexible and rapid response actions to contain and remediate threats across the environment.Reference:Cortex XDR- Extended Detection and Response - Palo Alto Networks,What is Cortex XDR | Palo Alto Networks,Cortex XDR Datasheet - Palo Alto Networks

Tunneling is a method of transporting data across a network using protocols that are not supported by that network. Tunneling works by encapsulating packets: wrapping packets inside of other packets. Tunneling within commonly used services is a technique that uses file sharing or an instant messenger client such as Meebo running over HTTP to bypass firewalls or other network restrictions. The data packets are encapsulated within HTTP packets and sent as normal web traffic. This way, the data packets can reach their destination without being blocked or detected by the network.Reference:What is tunneling? | Tunneling in networking | Cloudflare,What Is Network Tunneling & How Is It Used? | Traefik Labs,networking - What is HTTP tunneling? - Stack Overflow